Item No. 1 of 1

INVESTIGATOR: Landis, A.

PERFORMING INSTITUTION:
CLEMSON UNIVERSITY
CLEMSON, SOUTH CAROLINA 29634

DEVELOPING A LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT MODEL FOR EVALUATING POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF BIOFUELS

NON-TECHNICAL SUMMARY: Recent regulations and variable oil prices have resulted in increased production of biofuels from second and third generation feedstocks. For example, in 2007 the US passed the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA). Many of these new policies call for the evaluation of the greenhouse gas emissions reductions of biofuels using life cycle assessment (LCA). LCA is a well-established sustainability tool for measuring the total environmental impacts of a product or process. This research evaluates the implications of different US, state, and local biofuel policies that will evaluate different combinations of feedstocks, processing and conversion pathways to determine the effects that different policies will have on biofuel production and environmental impacts.The goal of the proposed research is to quantify the policy implications of increased biofuel production. We will evaluate the environmental impacts associated with 2nd and 3rd generation biofuels including perennial grasses, sorghum, and oil seeds for the production and commercialization of drop-in biofuels for each of the four regions in the US defined by the Census Bureau. We propose to evaluate the feasibility of meeting the EISA Renewable Fuel Standards (EISA RFS) as well as local policies such as the Penn Security Initiative and California's Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS). Finally, we aim to evaluate strategies for avoiding or mitigating any unintended consequences.

OBJECTIVES: The goal of the proposed research is to quantify the policy implications of increased biofuel production. We will evaluate the environmental impacts associated with 2nd and 3rd generation biofuels including perennial grasses, sorghum, and oil seeds for the production and commercialization of drop-in biofuels for each of the four regions in the US defined by the Census Bureau. We propose to evaluate the feasibility of meeting the EISA Renewable Fuel Standards (EISA RFS) as well as local policies such as the Penn Security Initiative and California's Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS). Finally, we aim to evaluate strategies for avoiding or mitigating any unintended consequences.

APPROACH: This research will utilize a life cycle framework to model and characterize the environmental impacts created by producing biofuels from new feedstocks. Case-study scenarios representing EISA goals and alternative future biofuels scenarios will be defined to compare and prioritize the most likely mix of cultivation, alternative feedstocks, and processing technologies for production of biofuels.The specific research activities include:Develop life cycle inventory (LCI) and LCA modules for several biomass to drop-in replacement biofuel pathways. The modules will contain essential information about the processes for the LCA of a variety of advanced drop-in replacement biofuels. Feedstocks will include perennial grasses, sorghum, and oil seeds.Identify implications of existing and future renewable fuel policies, biomass feedstocks, processing methods, upgrading pathways, final fuel and coproduct mixes, and emissions in the U.S.Assess the policy ramifications and unintended consequences of using several different biomass feedstocks and conversion pathways for producing low biofuels and other useful bioproducts in the U.S. context.

PROGRESS: 2015/08 TO 2017/07
Target Audience:Target audiences served by the project include students, academics, industrial leaders, and policy makers engaged in U.S. energy policy, biofuel and bioenergy systems, industrial ecology, and life cycle assessment.In order to disseminate research findings from this reporting period (8/1/12 - 7/31/17) to the widest possible audience, various documents, and presentations were produced and distributed. Peer-Reviewed Publications: Published, Under Review/In Progress Harris, T. M., Zaimes, G. G., Khanna, V., & Landis, A. E. (2015). Sunflower Cultivation on Coal Mine Refuse Piles in Appalachia for Diesel Biofuel Production from a Life-cycle Perspective.Procedia Engineering,118, 869-878. Zaimes, G. G., Soratana, K., Harden, C. L., Landis, A. E., & Khanna, V. (2015). Biofuels via fast pyrolysis of perennial grasses: A life cycle evaluation of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Environmental science & technology,49(16), 10007-10018. Zaimes, G. G., Vora, N., Chopra, S. S., Landis, A. E., & Khanna, V. (2015). Design of Sustainable Biofuel Processes and Supply Chains: Challenges and Opportunities.Processes,3(3), 634-663. Tyler M. Harris, Jay P. Devkota, Vikas Khanna, Amy E. Landis (2017). "Life Cycle Assessment with Monte Carlo Analysis of Diesel Biofuel Production via Transesterification and Fast Pyrolysis from Feedstock Cultivated on Abandoned Coal Mine Refuse Piles in Appalachia Treated with Bauxite Residue." Energy and Environmental Science. In Progress Tyler M. Harris, Vikas Khanna, Amy E. Landis (2017). "Logistic Growth Curve Modeling of US Biofuel Production." Energy Policy. In Progress. Vora, N., Zaimes, G. G., Landis, A. E., & Khanna, V. Life cycle Assessment of Green Diesel Production through Fast Pyrolysis of Switchgrass and Miscanthus, Bioresource Technology (In Preparation). Moni, S. M., Devkota, J.P., Harris, T.M., Khanna, V. & Landis, A.E. Life Cycle Assessment of Biofuels via Fast Pyrolysis of Sweet Sorghum, Journal of Cleaner Production (in preparation). Devkota, J., Theregowda, R., Harris, T. M., Khanna, V., and Landis, A. E. (in preparation) Eutrophication potential from biofuel production: A comparative assessment of Nitrogen emissions to TMDL. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Peer-Reviewed Publications and Conference Proceedings Tyler M. Harris, Troy Hottle, Kullapa Soratana, Jonathan Klane, Amy Landis (2016). "Life Cycle Assessment of Biodiesel Production and Sunflower Cultivation on Abandoned Mine Land." Journal of Cleaner Production, 112: 182-195. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.057 Tyler M. Harris, George G. Zaimes, Vikas Khanna, Amy E. Landis (2015). "Sunflower Cultivation on Coal Mine Refuse Piles in Appalachia for Diesel Biofuel Production from a Life-cycle Perspective." Procedia Engineering, 118: 869-878. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.525 - International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction 2015. May 10-13, 2015, Chicago, IL, USA Conference and Poster Presentations Tyler M. Harris, Jay P. Devkota, Vikas Khanna, Amy E. Landis (2017). "Reestablishing Logistic Growth Curve Modeling of Energy Production." ISIE-ISSST 2017: Science in Support of Sustainable and Resilient Communities. Oral Presentation, June 25-29, 2017, Chicago, IL, USA Tyler M. Harris, Jay P. Devkota, Vikas Khanna, Amy E. Landis (2017). "Logistic growth curve modeling of US primary energy production reveals where technology and policy fall short, and where innovation is required." Engineering Sustainability 2017: Innovation and the Triple Bottom Line. Oral Presentation, April 9-11, 2017, Pittsburgh, PA, USA Tyler M. Harris, Vikas Khanna, Amy E. Landis (2016) "US Biofuel Greenhouse Gas Reduction Profiles from Logistic Modeling and EPA Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS2) Requirements." ACLCA LCA XVI Conference. Poster Presentation, September 27-29, 2016 Charleston, SC, USA Moni, S. M., Devkota, J.P., Khanna, V. & Landis, A.E. Life Cycle Assessment of Emerging Technologies: A Case Study of Biofuel via Fast Pyrolysis of Sweet Sorghum. Engineering Sustainability, Pittsburgh, PA. April 9-11, 2017. Zaimes, G. G.; Harden, C. L.; Soratana, K.; Rasutis, D.; Antaya, C. L.; Landis, A. E.; Khanna, V., Integrated life-cycle framework for assessing the environmental sustainability of emerging biofuel policies, poster presentation: International Symposium of Sustainable Systems and Technologies (ISSST), Cincinnati, OH, May 15 - 17, 2013. G.G. Zaimes, C. Young, and V. Khanna. Quantifying the Carbon-Water-Energy Nexus for Drop-in Replacement Biofuels Produced from Perennial Grasses, International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technology, Oakland, CA, May 19-21, 2014. Topical lectures and activities were developed and administered using the knowledge and methods gained from this project during the course of this academic year as well. This research touched the science-based instruction in the Intro to Engineering, Earth Systems Engineering and Management, and Stochastic Methods and Statistics for Sustainable Engineering undergraduate and graduate courses. An experiential learning opportunity was provided for an undergraduate researcher pursuing a career in academia. This student was able to improve time management and critical thinking skills, and experience multiple research and reporting techniques, while adding significant value to this USDA project. With the help of this undergraduate student, substantial progress has been made towards making data available via USDA LCA Commons and a help guide is being developed for public dissemination. The project research team also included a diverse group of individuals including a veteran from the US Marine Corps, and several international researchers. Additionally, a recipient of the NSF GRFP volunteered time for research on this project. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?This project provided ongoing opportunities for graduate, undergraduate, and postdoc researchers to develop and master technical skillsets and utilize modeling software packages including SimaPro, ArcGIS, ASPEN Plus, OpenLCA, MATLAB, Excel, and. Furthermore, researchers gained exposure to multiple sustainability databases such as GREET and AFDC, as well as related U.S. national, state, and local legislative documents. This project also provided multiple avenues for professional development including presentations at international conferences and exposure to the academic and scientific peer-review process. Also see Target Audience. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?An article exploring life cycle assessment of biofuels via fast pyrolysis of Perennial grasses was produced and published in Environmental Science and Technology, a widely read academic journal. Results found from the study exploring life cycle assessment of sunflower cultivation on coal mine refuse piles in Appalachia for diesel biofuel production was published in International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction. An article describing the challenges and opportunities of designing sustainable biofuel processes was published in Processes in 2015. An exhibition of life cycle assessment research on biofuel cultivation on marginal lands was presented at the 2015 ICSDEC in Chicago, IL. Attendees ranged from business professionals and government representatives to established research faculty and undergraduate students from across the globe. An article was also published in the ICSDEC conference proceeding outlining the respective LCA conducted on biofuel production. Furthermore, topical lectures, activities, and a fact sheet was produced for both academic and public dissemination of results. Also see Target Audience. In addition, one article has been published in Journal of Cleaner Production that explored low-input production of sunflower biodiesel feedstock on abandoned mine land (AML) from coal mining refuse treated with bauxite residue (alkaline clay) through the lens of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Logistic growth curve modeling of US energy production has been presented at Engineering Sustainability Conference 2017 at Pittsburgh PA as well as ACLCA LCA XVI Conference 2016 Charleston SC. Life Cycle Assessment of Emerging Technologies has beenpresented at Engineering Sustainability Conference 2017 at Pittsburgh PA. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

IMPACT: 2015/08 TO 2017/07
What was accomplished under these goals? Objective 1 and 2: A well-to-wheel (WTW) life cycle assessment (LCA) model was developed to evaluate the environmental profile of producing liquid transportation fuels via fast pyrolysis of perennial grasses: switchgrass and miscanthus. The results of this work reveal that the EROI and GHG emissions (gCO2e/MJ-fuel) for fast pyrolysis derived fuels range from 1.52 to 2.56 and 22.5 to 61.0 respectively, over the host of scenarios evaluated. The findings of this work was published as an original research article entitled "Biofuels via fast pyrolysis of perennial grasses: A life cycle evaluation of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions", in Environmental Science and Technology (ES&T) (August 18, 2015, 49(16), 10007-10018). An attributional life cycle assessment (LCA) model was developed to explore low-input production of sunflower biodiesel feedstock on abandoned mine land (AML) from coal mining refuse treated with bauxite residue (alkaline clay) through the lens of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).Results showed substantial impact from the initial soil amendment process, however, when compared to complete restoration of the AML and other similar fuel production activities, overall environmental impacts over a twenty-year production cycle are sensible. An alternative allocation of the bauxite residue transport (i.e. associating transport impacts to aluminum industry) and addition of other fuel conversion pathways would show an improved energy return and better environmental outlook from biofuel production on AML. This result was published in Journal of Cleaner Production. (September 2015,112 (2016): 182-195). Logistic growth curve modeling research redeveloped and simplified the modeling technique. This novel method is simple and straightforward enough that a basic spreadsheet program with solver capabilities can model energy production, consumption, and environmental impact growth/reduction at regional or national levels. This work applied the s-shaped logistic curve to US biofuel production for trend analysis and comparison to EISA/RFS2 requirements. Results showed US biofuel production has reached a temporary plateau and will not likely meet RFS2 requirements through 2030. Environmental impacts of past and prospective biofuel growth cycles were then modeled, with results showing greenhouse gas emission reductions reaching only half of that required by the EISA/RFS2. Results from this research were presented at 3 international conferences and are being prepared for journal resubmission. LCA and EIO analysis was applied to US drop-in biofuel production and policy related to feedstock cultivation on previously unused marginal lands through industrial symbiosis. Continued from NSF project work verifying the feasibility of cultivating feedstock on abandoned coal mine refuse piles treated with bauxite residue, work for this project completed a comprehensive LCA with Monte Carlo Analysis for environmental impacts, and IMPLAN modeling for economic and social implications on drop-in biofuel production on abandoned mine lands across the Appalachian region using GIS. Results show that biofuel feedstock cultivation on abandoned coal mine lands is more sustainable than all other reclamation techniques. This work was presented at an international conference and published in the conference proceeding, and the final journal article is being prepared for submission. A life cycle impact analysis is currently in progress for evaluating the environmental performance of drop-in replacement biofuels produced via fast pyrolysis of switchgrass and miscanthus. The results indicate that depending on biofuel co-product use, GHG emissions from miscanthus and switchgrass derived biofuels meet the 60% Renewable Fuel Standard 2 (RFS2) reduction criteria. However, the analysis also indicates that fast pyrolysis fuels may underperform in other categories resulting in higher impacts. Specifically, externally supplied hydrogen for fuel upgrading is the largest contributor in a maximum number of categories including GHG emissions, acidification, carcinogens, fossil fuel depletion, and smog. Another significant contribution comes from the use of fertilizers and chemicals causing impacts in eutrophication, ecotoxicity, and non-carcinogens. This work is currently in progress to be submitted to Bioresource Technology journal. A Well-to-Wheel (WTW) life cycle assessment (LCA) model was developed to evaluate the feasibility of production of drop in replacement liquid transportation fuel via fast pyrolysis of sweet sorghum. Results from this study revealed that a biofuel refinery with combined heat and power (CHP) system can achieve EROI in the range of 2.97 to 4.67 based on different coproduct scenarios. The global warming potential (GWP) reduction was found in the range of 42 % to 56 % compared with petroleum diesel. This study also revealed that biofuel production via fast pyrolysis of sweet sorghum reduces GWP, acidification, ozone depletion, smog and respiratory effects, but increases ecotoxicity, eutrophication, and human health impacts compared to petroleum diesel. This work is currentlyunder production to be submitted to Journal of Cleaner Production. Objective 3: A journal paper entitled Design of sustainable biofuel processes and supply chains: challenges and opportunitieswas published in Processes on August 20, 2015. Designing sustainable biofuel supply chains requires joint consideration of economic, environmental, and social factors that span multiple spatial and temporal scales. However, traditional life cycle assessment (LCA) ignores economic aspects and the role of ecological goods and services in supply chains, and hence is limited in its ability for guiding decision-making among alternatives--often resulting in sub-optimal solutions. Simultaneously incorporating economic and environment objectives in the design and optimization of emerging biofuel supply chains requires a radical new paradigm. This work discusses key research opportunities and challenges in the design of emerging biofuel supply chains and provides a high-level overview of the current "state of the art" in environmental sustainability assessment of biofuel production. To aid in policy analysis regarding the eutrophication emission from biofuel production from various feedstock, a manuscript is under production to be submitted to Renewable Sustainable Energy Reviews. As biofuel production increases, a growing need exists to understand and mitigate potential impacts on water resources, especially water quality deterioration. Eutrophication is considered one of the most pervasive problems affecting water quality in the US, especially in the Midwest where synthetic N fertilizers are used extensively for agriculture. There is no such existing framework or standard that can be used to limit the extent of eutrophication release from biofuels. We therefore propose to develop a quantitative benchmark to evaluate the effect of biofuel expansion in the national estuaries for the use in policy analysis.The result showed that growing feedstock in preserved watersheds such as Susquehanna watershed was not attractive as eutrophication potential was exceeding TMDL for most of the feedstocks. Conversely, eutrophication potential for the unprotected or non-preserved basins were found within acceptable TMDL's. Objective 4: Developed standard operating procedures of uploading data to the USDA LCA Commons database website via OpenLCA software. The data sheet is currently under review at USDA LCA commons. We have created a USDA Fact Sheet for public dissemination from "The Role of Sustainability and Life Cycle Thinking in U.S. Biofuels Policies" publication in Energy Policy. The research team also disseminated findings at several related conferences, as well as at student and industry events (see Target Audience).

PUBLICATIONS (not previously reported): 2015/08 TO 2017/07
1. Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zaimes, G. G., Vora, N., Chopra, S. S., Landis, A. E., & Khanna, V. (2015). Design of sustainable biofuel processes and supply chains: challenges and opportunities. Processes, 3(3), 634-663.
2. Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zaimes, G. G., Soratana, K., Harden, C. L., Landis, A. E., & Khanna, V. (2015). Biofuels via fast pyrolysis of perennial grasses: A life cycle evaluation of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Environmental science & technology, 49(16), 10007-10018.
3. Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Harris, T. M., Zaimes, G. G., Khanna, V., & Landis, A. E. (2015). Sunflower Cultivation on Coal Mine Refuse Piles in Appalachia for Diesel Biofuel Production from a Life-cycle Perspective. Procedia Engineering, 118, 869-878.
4. Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Harris, T.M., et al., Life cycle assessment of sunflower cultivation on abandoned mine land for biodiesel production. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016. 112: p. 182-195.
5. Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Tyler M. Harris, Troy Hottle, Kullapa Soratana, Jonathan Klane, Amy Landis (2016). ?Life Cycle Assessment of Biodiesel Production and Sunflower Cultivation on Abandoned Mine Land.? Journal of Cleaner Production, 112: 182-195. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.057
6. Type: Journal Articles Status: Other Year Published: 2017 Citation: Moni, S. M., Devkota, J.P., Harris, T.M., Khanna, V. & Landis, A.E. Life Cycle Assessment of Biofuels via Fast Pyrolysis of Sweet Sorghum, Journal of Cleaner Production (in preparation).
7. Type: Journal Articles Status: Other Year Published: 2017 Citation: Devkota, J., Theregowda, R., Harris, T. M., Khanna, V., and Landis, A. E. (in preparation) Eutrophication potential from biofuel production: A comparative assessment of Nitrogen emissions to TMDL. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
8. Type: Journal Articles Status: Other Year Published: 2017 Citation: Vora, N., Zaimes, G. G., Landis, A. E., & Khanna, V. Life cycle Assessment of Green Diesel Production through Fast Pyrolysis of Switchgrass and Miscanthus, Bioresource Technology (In Preparation)
9. Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Poster: Moni, S. M., Devkota, J.P., Khanna, V. & Landis, A.E. Life Cycle Assessment of Emerging Technologies: A Case Study of Biofuel via Fast Pyrolysis of Sweet Sorghum. Engineering Sustainability, Pittsburgh, PA. April 9-11, 2017.
10. Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Tyler M. Harris, Jay P. Devkota, Vikas Khanna, Amy E. Landis (2017). ?Reestablishing Logistic Growth Curve Modeling of Energy Production." ISIE-ISSST 2017: Science in Support of Sustainable and Resilient Communities. Oral Presentation, June 25-29, 2017, Chicago, IL, USA
11. Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Tyler M. Harris, Jay P. Devkota, Vikas Khanna, Amy E. Landis (2017). "Logistic growth curve modeling of US primary energy production reveals where technology and policy fall short, and where innovation is required." Engineering Sustainability 2017: Innovation and the Triple Bottom Line. Oral Presentation, April 9-11, 2017, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
12. Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Tyler M. Harris, Vikas Khanna, Amy E. Landis (2016) ?US Biofuel Greenhouse Gas Reduction Profiles from Logistic Modeling and EPA Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS2) Requirements.? ACLCA LCA XVI Conference. Poster Presentation, September 27-29, 2016 Charleston, SC, USA

PROGRESS: 2015/08/01 TO 2016/07/31
Target Audience:Target audiences served by the project include students, academics, industrial leaders, and policy makers engaged in U.S. energy policy, biofuel and bioenergy systems, industrial ecology, and life cycle assessment. In order to disseminate research findings from this reporting period (8/1/15 - 7/31/16) to the widest possible audience, various documents, and presentations were produced and distributed. An article exploring life cycle assessment of biofuels via fast pyrolysis of Perennial grasses was produced and published in Environmental Science and Technology, a widely read academic journal. Results found from the study exploring life cycle assessment of sunflower cultivation on coal mine refuse piles in Appalachia for diesel biofuel production was published in International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction. An article describing the challenges and opportunities of designing sustainable biofuel processes was published in Processes journal in 2015. An exhibition of life cycle assessment research on biofuel cultivation on marginal lands was presented at the 2015 International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction (ICSDEC) in Chicago, IL. Attendees ranged from business professionals and government representatives to established research faculty and undergraduate students from across the globe. An article was also published in the ICSDEC conference proceeding outlining the respective LCA conducted on biofuel production. Topical lectures and activities were developed and administered using the knowledge and methods gained from this project during the course of this academic year as well. This research touched the science-based instruction in the Intro to Engineering, Earth Systems Engineering and Management, and Stochastic Methods and Statistics for Sustainable Engineering undergraduate and graduate courses at Arizona State University. An experiential learning opportunity was provided for an undergraduate researcher pursuing a career in academia. This student was able to improve time management and critical thinking skills, and experience multiple research and reporting techniques, while adding significant value to this USDA project. With the help of this undergraduate student, substantial progress has been made towards making data available via USDA LCA Commons and a help guide is being developed for public dissemination. The project research team also included a diverse group of individuals including a veteran from the US Marine Corps, and several international researchers. Additionally, a recipient of the NSF GRFP volunteered time for research on this project. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?This project provided ongoing opportunities for graduate, undergraduate, and postdoc researchers to develop and master technical skillsets and utilize modeling software packages including SimaPro, ArcGIS, ASPEN Plus, OpenLCA, MATLAB, Excel, and. Furthermore, researchers gained exposure to multiple sustainability databases such as GREET and AFDC, as well as related U.S. national, state, and local legislative documents. This project also provided multiple avenues for professional development including presentations at international conferences and exposure to the academic and scientific peer-review process. Also see Target Audience. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?An article exploring life cycle assessment of biofuels via fast pyrolysis of Perennial grasses was produced and published in Environmental Science and Technology, a widely read academic journal. Results found from the study exploring life cycle assessment of sunflower cultivation on coal mine refuse piles in Appalachia for diesel biofuel production was published in International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction. An article describing the challenges and opportunities of designing sustainable biofuel processes was published in Processes in 2015. An exhibition of life cycle assessment research on biofuel cultivation on marginal lands was presented at the 2015 ICSDEC in Chicago, IL. Attendees ranged from business professionals and government representatives to established research faculty and undergraduate students from across the globe. An article was also published in the ICSDEC conference proceeding outlining the respective LCA conducted on biofuel production. Furthermore, topical lectures, activities, and a fact sheet was produced for both academic and public dissemination of results. Also see Target Audience. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Objective 1: Develop a detailed life cycle inventory (LCI) and evaluate the potential environmental impacts of biofuels via fast pyrolysis of sorghum. Agricultural model based on data from peer-reviewed literatures and field trials will be combined with process-based ASPEN Plus model for biomass conversion to biofuels to determine environmental impacts focusing on 10 TRACI impact categories. Furthermore, research on evaluating the carbon footprint, energy balance, and environmental impacts for fast pyrolysis derived biofuels will be continued. Objective 2 & 3: Continue to integrate previous results and fast pyrolysis model to quantify the environmental impacts and potential unintended environmental consequences of utilizing different biofeedstocks and fuel conversion scenarios to meet regulatory fuel mandates. A comparative assessment is also being performed to estimate and compare the water emissions from the farm (while producing biofuel feedstock) and eutrophication impacts from the production of biofuels to the total maximum daily load (TMDL) from a watershed for various regions. While more biofuel has been produced from first generation feedstocks, such as corn and soybeans, research has found that corn has highest farm emissions due to higher use of fertilizers. We argue that using cover crops, such as switchgrass or miscanthus, to produce biofuel will have lower GHG emissions because cover crops are reported to increase carbon sequestration thereby reducing net GHG emissions. The result of this study is expected to aid critical thinking on policy regarding promotion of biofuels. Objective 4: Disseminate the results of the project via peer-reviewed publications and international conferences. All results are to be incorporated into the USDA LCA Commons library using the newly created standard operating procedure for data upload.

IMPACT: 2015/08/01 TO 2016/07/31
What was accomplished under these goals? Objective 1 and 2: A well-to-wheel (WTW) hybrid life cycle assessment (LCA) model was developed to evaluate the environmental profile of producing liquid transportation fuels via fast pyrolysis of switchgrass and miscanthus. Statistical bounds for key sustainability and performance measures including life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and Energy Return on Investment (EROI) was determined using Monte Carlo analysis. The results reveal that the EROI and GHG emissions (gCO2 eq./MJ-fuel) for fast pyrolysis derived fuels range from 1.52 to 2.56 and 22.5 to 61.0 respectively, over the host of scenarios evaluated. The results also reported thatminimizing the quantity of hydrogen and electricity required for fuel conversion will be crucial for increasing the energetic performance of fast pyrolysis derived biofuels. These novel insights are important for benchmarking the performance and environmental sustainability of emerging fast-pyrolysis thermochemical fuel conversion platforms. The findings of this work was published as an original research article entitled "Biofuels via fast pyrolysis of perennial grasses: A life cycle evaluation of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions", in Environmental Science and Technology (ES&T). A life cycle assessment (LCA) model was developed to determine the environmental impacts, performance, and feasibility of producing diesel biofuels via transesterification and fast pyrolysis of sunflower feedstock cultivated on abandoned coal mine refuse piles treated with bauxite residue in three Appalachian states. The impacts resulting from the original site study are slightly lower (>1%) than that of the average Appalachian site explored in this study. This resulted mainly from the addition of three fast pyrolysis unit processes for the production of green diesel from sunflower in this study. However, the slight increase in impact from additional green diesel production resulted in an additional 382 liters per hectare of biofuel (159% increase), for a total diesel biofuel yield of 573 liters per hectare, or 19 gigajoules of energy per hectare. Using this biofuel yield estimate in three Appalachian states, the total of 6643 hectares of abandoned mine land should produce nearly 32 thousand barrels of diesel biofuel per year, or 120 terajoules per year. Because of this, it is highly recommended that the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) consider expanding the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) to include biofuel production on marginal land for Renewable Identification Number (RIN) assignment. The findings of this study was published in International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction in 2015 and will be submitted toEnvironmental Science and Technology (ES&T)for possible publication after completinga stochastic LCA using Monte Carlo Analysis (MCA) for the entire Appalachian region. A manuscript entitled 'Logistic Modeling of US Biofuel Production' to be submitted to Environmental Science and Technology (ES&T) is near completion. Results revealed a logistic model fit to US total biofuel production (a sum of the ethanol fuel and biodiesel renewable energy categories reported by the DOE EIA) with a R square of 0.995 showing a current annual production plateau at 15.8 billion gallons per year, far short of the EPA RFS2 mandate of 36 billion gallons total in 2022. The individual RFS2 renewable fuel category requirements demonstrate the EPA expects three new biofuel production industries to completely replace the current (or generation 1) biofuel industry by 2022. Unfortunately, current data does not show overall US biofuel trends changing because of input from these new technologies, and the rate at which these new biofuel technologies would need to progress appears to be unlikely to occur. Preliminary results shows if the RFS2 requirements were met a GHG reduction near 68 billion kg CO2e would occur in 2022, however, the logistic model shows GHG reductions from biofuel production in 2022 more likely to be between 35 and 58 billion kg CO2e. Another logistic modeling manuscript on total US energy production is also in progressto be submitted to Environmental Science and Technology (ES&T). This research explores straightforward logistic modeling of US energy production to observe trends, inform energy policy, and reestablish the legitimacy of the logistic equation as a simple yet robust method for energy production modeling. Renewable energy production is modeled with the original s-shaped (sigmoid) logistic curve commonly seen in biology textbooks for population modeling, while non-renewable energy production is modeled with the bell-shaped logistic curve (the derivative of the s-shaped curve) similar to the normal (or Gaussian) distribution. Preliminary results indicate a surplus in energy from unconventional fossil fuel production will peak in 2020 and decrease at a rate faster than renewable energy production trends are increasing. It is recommended that rather than easing away from advancing renewable energy production because of this glut of fossil fuel energy, a strong effort supported by national policy is made to utilize this surplus to advance renewable energy production throughout the next decade. A life cycle impact analysis is currently in progress for evaluating the environmental performance of drop-in replacement biofuels produced via fast pyrolysis of switchgrass and miscanthus. We combine agricultural data for feedstock production from the peer-reviewed literature with detailed process-based ASPEN Plus models for biomass conversion to biofuels. Additionally, we conduct rigorous statistical analysis utilizing Monte Carlo simulations and bootstrapping to quantify uncertainty in our estimates. Preliminary results reveal that N-fertilizer production and application is the single largest contributor across most impact categories. Additionally, switchgrass has higher fertilizer based impacts due to lower average yields and higher N-fertilizer application rates. Current work is in progress and theresults will be compared against production of petroleum diesel and biodiesel to understand unintended consequences of biofuel production. Objective 3: An article entitled, "Design of Sustainable Biofuel Processes and Supply Chains: Challenges and Opportunities", was published in Processes on August 20, 2015. The articles highlights the current methodological shortcomings in developing sustainable biofuel processes and supply chains.Further, designing sustainable biofuel supply chains requires joint consideration of economic, environmental, and social factors that span multiple spatial and temporal scales. However, traditional life cycle assessment (LCA) ignores economic aspects and the role of ecological goods and services in supply chains, and hence is limited in its ability for guiding decision-making among alternatives--often resulting in sub-optimal solutions. This work discusses key research opportunities and challenges in the design of emerging biofuel supply chains and provides a high-level overview of the current 'state of the art' in environmental sustainability assessment of biofuel production. Additionally, a bibliometric analysis of over 20,000 biofuel research articles from 2000-to-present is performed to identify active topical areas of research in the biofuel literature, quantify the relative strength of connections between various biofuels research domains, and determine any potential research gaps. ?Objective 4:Developed standard operating procedures of uploading data to the USDA LCA Commons database website via OpenLCA software. We have created a USDA Fact Sheet for public dissemination from "The Role of Sustainability and Life Cycle Thinking in U.S. Biofuels Policies" publication in Energy Policy. The research team also disseminated findings at several related conferences, as well as at student and industry events (see Target Audience).

PUBLICATIONS: 2015/08/01 TO 2016/07/31
1. Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Harris, T. M., Zaimes, G. G., Khanna, V., & Landis, A. E. (2015). Sunflower Cultivation on Coal Mine Refuse Piles in Appalachia for Diesel Biofuel Production from a Life-cycle Perspective. Procedia Engineering, 118, 869-878.
2. Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zaimes, G. G., Soratana, K., Harden, C. L., Landis, A. E., & Khanna, V. (2015). Biofuels via fast pyrolysis of perennial grasses: A life cycle evaluation of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Environmental science & technology, 49(16), 10007-10018.
3. Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zaimes, G. G., Vora, N., Chopra, S. S., Landis, A. E., & Khanna, V. (2015). Design of Sustainable Biofuel Processes and Supply Chains: Challenges and Opportunities. Processes, 3(3), 634-663.
4. Type: Journal Articles Status: Under Review Year Published: 2016 Citation: Tyler M. Harris, Vikas Khanna, and Amy E. Landis ?Logistic Modeling of US Biofuel Production? Environmental Science & Technology. (2016)
5. Type: Journal Articles Status: Under Review Year Published: 2016 Citation: Tyler M. Harris, Vikas Khanna, and Amy E. Landis ?Logistic Modeling of Total US Energy Production? Environmental Science & Technology. (2016)
6. Type: Journal Articles Status: Under Review Year Published: 2016 Citation: Tyler M. Harris, Vikas Khanna, and Amy E. Landis ?Life Cycle Assessment with Monte Carlo Analysis of Biofuel Production on Appalachian Abandoned Mine Lands? Environmental Science & Technology. (2016)